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POSTGRADUATE STUDIES IN LAW AND OFFICIAL MASTER IN EUROPEAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW WITH MENTION OF QUALITY |
GENERAL INFORMATION |
The Master in European Constitutional Law is designed to offer an in-depth study of the convergence of constitutional elements present in the European integration process. Thus, it begins with a course on the Methodology of European Constitutional Law and then it is followed by several other courses which cover topics of European Constitutional Law, such as: fundamental rights; the economic constitution of the Union; relationships between the different legal orders; the constitutional competences of the members states and the EU; and the impact of European Law on the territorial articulation of the Member States and their governments. Since the academic year of 2009-2010, the Master has been offered in Spanish and in English.
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Seminar Module (40 Credits Mandatory): 1. The Lisbon Treaty and the EU Constitutionalisation Process. |
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In addition to the above-mentioned courses, students have to prepare a written dissertation (20 credits), in which they have to analyse one of the following lines of research: I. Sources of Law in the new European Context The written dissertation must be original in topic and content; its length must be between 70 and 150 pages. The time frame for presenting work before the panel is as follows: September of the same year the student has finished the seminar module OR December of the same year the student has finished the seminar module OR September of the following year the student finished the seminar module. |
SEMINARS MODEL |
1. THE LISBON TREATY AND THE CONSTITUTIONALISATION PROCESS IN THE EU.Course Characteristics: Course/Fundamental/Mandatory/4 ECTS Credits Course Description: This course is intended to give students a basic understanding of the most important issues currently being raised in European Constitutional Law with regard to the constitutionalisation process of the EU. The course will examine the current state of the constitutional process, the debate on the need for a European Constitution, the process of elaborating and ratifying the Constitutional Treaty, and the crisis of the Constitutional Treaty which finishes with the enforcement of the Lisbon Treaty on 1 December 2009
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Specific Course Contents: I. European Constitutional Law as a Scientific Subject |
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Bibliography: - ALBERTÍ ROVIRA, Enoch (dir.): El proyecto de nueva Constitución Europea, Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia, 2004. |
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Methodology and Evaluation:
Grades for this course will be based on student participation and the degree of elaboration and development the student demonstrates in their individual presentation
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2. THE EU AND FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS: RECOGNITION AND GUARANTEES
Course Characteristics: Course/Fundamental/Elective/4 ECTS Credits Course Description: The overall objective of this course is to describe and analyse the evolution process of the recognition of fundamental rights and freedoms and their gradual evolution in European Law. In light of this subject, we also assess the role those fundamental rights and freedoms play in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU and the future the Charter itself holds. Specific objectives: • The constitutive treaties and their judicial interpretation • Study the meaning of fundamental rights in the legal orders of democratic states, in the international legal order, and in the legal order of the EU • Understanding the relationship between the doctrine of the ECJ and the constitutional courts of the member states, notably Germany, Italy, and Spain • Analysis of the Treaty on EU, the Treaty of Amsterdam and the Treaty of Nice • Analysis of the EU constitutionalisation process • Analysis of the Lisbon Treaty • Study and analysis of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union • Study mechanisms for the protection of fundamental rights in European Union Law - the multilevel protection of the rights and the interrelations between jurisdictions. |
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Specific Course Contents: Part One. General Approach: EU and fundamental rights in the relationship between legal orders. Historical development. The foundational treaties and their legal interpretation: phases. The Treaty on the European Union. The Treaty of Amsterdam. The European Charter of Fundamental Rights. The Constitutional Treaty - its current situation and its future. Conclusions. Part Two. The constitutional dimension of the EU. Fundamental rights in the European integration process. The constitutional meaning of the Charter of Fundamental Rights. The work of the conventions. Conclusions. The Charter and the Lisbon Treaty. |
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Bibliography: - AGUDO ZAMORA, M.: "La protección de los derechos en la Unión Europea. Claves para entender la evolución histórica desde el Tratado constitutivo de la Comunidad Económica Europea al Tratado por el que se establece una Constitución para Europa". Revista de Derecho Constitucional Europeo, nº 4. http://www.ugr.es/~redce/REDCE4/ReDCEsumario4.htm |
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Methodology and Evaluation: The first part of the course “The EU and Fundamental Rights” will be divided into 4 sessions. Each class will last 4 hours, for a total of 16 hours of in-classroom analysis and debate. The remaining hours will be self-study oriented. During the first two days of the course, Professor Cámara will present the theory corresponding to the first part of the course, giving a general overview of the content. In the subsequent sessions, Dr. Oliver will present the theoretical content for the second part of the course using the same methodology. Active participation as well as critical analysis and debate are expected from all students. Attendance is imperative and students should be fully prepared, having done all assignments recommended in the bibliography and any other assignments deemed necessary for the preparation of each session. Grades for this course will be based on attendance as well as student participation in the debates. The second part consists of more practical content, and as a result, students will be expected to give presentations on ECJ decisions and on other topics as assigned. The work is to be developed over the length of the second part of the course and in the end presented and discussed in a group setting. Accordingly, each student will be assigned his or her corresponding task at the end of the first part of the course. As an additional part of the course, Professors Rolla from the University of Genoa and Michael from the University of Dusseldorf, and whose session will be in English, will present the following topics: - The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU: Codification Technique and Comparative Analysis of the European Convention of Human Rights and National Constitutions Special consideration will be given to the evaluation process as follows: • Attendance of the different class meetings Professors Cámara and Oliver will evaluate students according to the material they have respectively assigned, taking into consideration the observations of Professor Rolla. The final grade will be the average of the grades submitted by all three professors. Students can access the SWAD (online access) platform where they can find all necessary information, including literature, web links, and other materials. There, students may also participate in online discussions and emailing in order to take full advantage of the course. |
3. METHODOLOGY OF EUROPEAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW.
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Bibliography:
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Methodology and Evaluation: This course will be divided into 10 classroom sessions. The first and the second sessions will be taught by Professor Ricardo Chueca, and they will concern issues of instrumental methodology. The following four sessions will be taught by the professor in charge of the course and the invited professors and they will focus on methodological questions of the European Constitutional Law. The last four sessions will be dedicated to the defence and group discussion of work elaborated by the students. Attendance and Participation count for 25% of the final grade. The elaboration and defence of an original dissertation no less than 20 pages will count for 75% of the mark. |
4. THE JUDICIAL POWER OF THE EU.
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Specific Course Contents:
A) Organisation and Function of the European Union Court of Justice Court of Justice B) Proceedings Preliminary rulings C) Rules of proceedings of the European Court of Justice D) Analysis of relevant cases
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Bibliography: - K. LENAERTS: “The rule of law ant the coherence of the judicial system of the European Union”. Common Market Law Review. 2007-6. Págs. 1625-1659. |
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Methodology and Evaluation: Methodology: Professors encourage direct participation and involvement so that the students themselves explain and understand the basic notions covered in the course. Students are responsible for written assignments as well as an oral presentation. Evaluation: Students will be evaluated based on their active participation in the class and their quality of work throughout the course, especially taking into account written assignments as well as the presentation. |
5. THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT OF THE EU.
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Specific Course Content: The first part deals with an ineludibly introductory framework. In that introduction we make reference to the historical emergence of various forms of government that are linked to the establishment and subsequent evolution of the Constitutional State in Europe. In this way, we will analyse, according to the different variants of the principle of the separation of power, how the States adopt constitutional values, develop distinct forms of articulation of the various powers attributed to them, distributing, among them their functions and how they develop relations of reciprocity, with more or less intensity, and distinct character. Then, the second part takes into account the comparative study of the form of government in the most important European States. In this regard, we will develop the analysis of the constitutional and legal normative references in this field, considering the practical policies that will be observed. Specifically, we will study the form of government of the United Kingdom, German, France, Italy and Spain. We dedicate the third part of the course to the study of the form of government thus far experienced in the European Union. A form of government that has been developing in its institutional environment as expected with regards to Primary European Law (such as the Treaties) as well as policies carried out as a result of the continuous organic and functional interaction between the European Council, the Council, the European Parliament, and the Commission. In addition and at the same time, we will cover one of the most interesting issues of the course because of its extraordinary repercussions: the critical analysis of a new government model like the one that has emerged in Europe from the Lisbon Treaty in 2007. (Beforehand, we will examine the different constituent proposals that have been formulated in the context of the current debate regarding the European integration process). Finally, from a legal and political point of view, we will discuss the main characteristics exhibited by the form of government adopted. Accordingly, we will study the organisation and functions of the respective institutions of reference and their reciprocal process of interaction. |
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Bibliography: - S. Mangiameli, ‘La forma di governo europea’, in G. Guzzetta (ed), Questioni costituzionali del governo europeo (Cedam, 2003) - M. García Pelayo, ‘Derecho constitucional comparado’, in Obras completas I, (Centro de Estudios Constitucionales, 1991) - J. Habermas, Die postnationale Konstelation. Politische Essays (Spanish translation, Paidós, 2000) - J. H. H. Weiler and M. Wind, European Constitutionalism Beyond the State (Cambridge University Press, 2003) - F. Mancini, ‘Europe: the Case for Statehood’, (1998) 4 European Law Journal 29 - L. Mª Díez-Picazo Giménez, La naturaleza de la Unión Europea (Civitas, 2009) - C. Closa Montero, Sistema político de la Unión Europea (Editorial Complutense, 1997) - P. Ridola, ‘Il principio democratico tra Stati nazionali e Unione Europea’ in P. Ridola, Diritto comparato e diritto constituzionale europeo, (G. Giappichelli 2010) - F. Snyders, ‘Governing Economic Globalisation: Global Legal Pluralism and European Law’, (1999) 5 European Law Review 334 - G. Majone, ‘Europe’s Democratic Deficit: the Questions of Standards’, (1998) 4 European Law Journal 5 - A. A. Cervati, ‘Elementi di indeterminatezza e di conflittualitá nella forma di governo europea’, Anuario dell´Associazione italiana dei costituzionalisti. La Costituzione europea (Cedam, 1999) - R. Dahl, On Democracy (Spanish translation, Taurus, 1999) - Z. Bankowsky and A. Scott (eds), The European Union and Its Order: the Legal Theory of European Integration, (Blackwell, 2000) - P. Häberle, Europäische Verfassungslehre, (Nomos, 2006) - F. Balaguer Callejón, ‘El Tratado de Lisboa en el diván. Una reflexión sobre estatalidad, constitucionalidad y Unión Europea’, (2007) 83 Revista Española de Derecho Constitucional 57 - P. Ridola, ‘La parlamentarizzazione degli assetti istituzionali dell ‘Unione Europea fra democrazia rappresentativa e democrazia partecipativa, in P. Ridola, Diritto comparato e diritto constituzionale europeo - P. Häberle, Gibt es eine europäische Öffentlichkeit? (De Gruyter, 2000), passim and P. Ridola, ‘Prime riflessioni sullo “spazio pubblico” nelle democrazie pluralistiche’, in P. Ridola, Diritto comparato e diritto constituzionale europeo - E. W. Bökenförde, Staat, Nation, Europa, (Suhrkamp, 1999), at 89 and D. Grimm, Die Verfassung und die Politik (C.H. Beck, 2002) - J. H. H. Weiler, ‘Does Europe need a Constitution? Demos, Telos and the German Maastricht Decision’, (1995) 1 European Law Journal 219 - E. O. Eriksen and J. E. Fossum, ‘Bringing European Democracy Back in. (Or how to read the German Constitutional Court´s Lisbon Treaty Ruling)’ (2011) 17 European Law Journal 153 - J. Habermas, ‘Remarks on Dieter Grimm´s “Does Europe need a Constitution?”’ in J. Habermas, Die Einbeziehung des Anderen (Spanish translation, Paidós, 1999) - A. J. Menéndez Menéndez, ‘The European Democratic Challenge: the Forging of a Supranational volonté’ (2009) 15 European Law Journal 277 - S. Mangiameli, ‘The Role of the European Parliament and the Principle of Representative Democracy’, (2009) European Public Law in www.europeanpubliclaw.eu and A. Von Bogdandy, ‘Founding Principles’ - J. H. H. Weiler, U. Haltern, F. C. Mayer, ‘European Democracy and its Critique’, (1995) 18 West European Politics 4 - A. Von Bogdandy, ‘Parlamentarismus in Europa: eine Verfalls- oder Erfolgsgeschichte’, (2005) 130 Archiv des Öffentlichen Rechts 445 - P. Kirchhof, ‘The European Union of States’, in A. Von Bogdandy and J. Bast, Principles of European Constitutional Law - D. Grimm, ‘Does Europe need a Constitution?’, (1995) 1 European Law Journal 282 - C. Harlow, Accountability in the European Union, (Oxford University Press, 2002) - S. Bredt, ‘Prospects and Limits of Democratic Governance in the EU’, (2001) 17 European Law Journal - J. H. H. Weiler, ‘The Transformation of Europe’, in Spanish Translation of Europa, fin de siglo (Centro de Estudios Constitucionales, 1995) - J. H. H. Weiler, ‘In the Defence of the Status Quo: Europe´s Constitutional Sonderweg’, in J. H. H. Weiler and M. Wind (eds), European Cosntitutionalism beyond the State - P. Kirchhof, ‘The Balance of Powers between National and European Institutions’, (1999) 5 European Law Journal 230; - J. Ziller, ‘Separation of Powers in the European Union´s Intertwined System of Government’, (2008) 3 Il Politico 167 - I. Pernice, ‘Multilevel Constitutionalism and the Treaty of Amsterdam: European Constitution-Making Revisited’, in (1996) 36 Common Market Law Review 703 - J. M. Porras Ramirez, ‘Integración europea y configuración institucional. La |
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Methodology and Evaluation: The course will be based on lectures taught by the respective professors of the course and the active participation of the students involved, through the debate, the discussion and the defence of the works concerning specific aspects of the subject. Student evaluations will be based on oral and written presentations, elaborated with the guidance of the professor. |
6. THE ECONOMIC CONSTITUTION OF THE EU.Course Characteristics: Course/Fundamental/Elective/4 ECTS Credits Course Description: Economic integration has been the historic engine of the European Union. The creation of a single market, which allows the free movement of production, factors in a competitive framework, as well as the development of partial and general economic policies of the same nature were the main priorities of the original Community members. Today the European Union is a more complex political reality, which has acquired a new economic dimension and additional characteristics. Despite that, the EU economic law continues addressing a great deal of practical problems as well as issues of a constitutional nature. The purpose of this course is to examine the current status and the contemporary problems of the constitutional bases of the EU economy. In this regard, we will dedicate the first two sections of this course to the analysis of each one of the fundamental freedoms. Later, in the third section, we will focus on the particular problems in the design of a competitive market, and finally in the last section of the course, we will discuss the specific issues that arise in the regulation of the European market and, in particular, on services of general interest.
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Specific Course Contents: I anf II. Fundamental Freedoms – constitutional bases of the market; freedom of movement. III. Competition Law and the European Market. IV. Market Regulation and Service of General Interest |
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Bibliography: http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/es/index.html - ALCARAZ VARÓ, E., El inglés jurídico. Textos y documentos, 3ª ed., Ariel, Barcelona, 1998. |
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Methodology and Evaluation: The first epigraph will be given by Professor Daniel Sarmiento (Univ. of Complutense/ECJ). The classes regarding the second epigraph are the responsibility of Miguel Azpitarte (Univ. of Granada). The third epigraph will be taught by Professor A. Boix (Univ. of Valencia), and Luis Arroyo (Univ. of Castilla-La Mancha/Constitutional Court of Spain) will be in charge of the last section of the course. In the classrooms setting the participating professors will create the bases for the theoretical approach to the essential problems in the constitutional organisation of the Union market. After this approach, the professors will try to work dialectically with the students on the current problems using court judgements and doctrinal articles. The four professors will evaluate the students together. Fifty percent of the grade will be based on the participation and the competence shown by the students in the classroom. The other 50% will be based on an original written paper of no more than 20 pages, regarding one of the topics presented in the course.
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7. CONSTITUTIONAL JUSTICE IN THE EU.
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Course Contents: The content of the course will be the following: A. Constitutional jurisdiction: the origin and meaning of the concept.
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Bibliography: - AHUMADA RUIZ, Marian, La jurisdicción constitucional en Europa, Civitas, Madrid, 2005. |
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Methodology and Evaluation: The course will be given during a two-week period. The first four class sessions will be presented by the professor and will explain the main points of constitutional justice - birth and legitimacy; we will then continue with discussion on their evolution in Europe and in the United States. The second week, not consecutive to the first week, will be dedicated to the presentation of students’ works regarding doctrinal aspects or to discussion of important jurisprudential events. Student evaluation will be based on two elements: firstly, classroom attendance and participation – In particular, the understanding and critical analysis as well as the quality of work performed will be taken into consideration. According to general guidelines, the final paper is worth 75% of the overall grade. |
8. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT LEGAL ORDERS.
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Specific Contents: Firstly, and with specific relation to the Spanish constitutional system, we must recognise the existence of an open process of political decentralization that presupposes the creation of the Autonomous Communities, which have created their own legal order despite the unity that makes up the Constitution, and we must also acknowledge the open process of European political integration. With the purpose of analysing the previous question and obtaining the proposed objectives, we propose a triple approach as a guideline of work: First, we will study the interrelation created between these several different legal orders from a monistic and plural point of view: the principle of hierarchy and competence. The following contents are: Legal Orders and the Constitution Secondly, now we propose the analysis of the principle of subsidiarity as one of the new fundamental points from which, in the future, the articulation of orders can be developed at the national level (Germany and in particular Italy, after the Constitution’s reform of 2001) and as with relation to Europe. In this regard, the comparative experience becomes very important. Subsidiarity and the Form of the State; Social and Territorial Autonomy; Horizontal and Vertical Subsidiarity; Subsidiarity in the Federal German Legal Order; Subsidiarity in Italy after the New Title V of the Constitution; Subsidiarity in the European Legal Order; Subsidiarity, Democracy, and Minorities; Subsidiarity and Globalisation. Thirdly and lastly we propose the study of the mechanisms of reintegration of the coherency and the complete character of the constitutional system, in which we would discuss the various techniques for preventing normative conflicts as long as it respects the plurality of orders that characterize the Europe. The essential contents are as follows: The Coherence of the Legal Order; The Normative Conflicts of First Degree and the Principles of Resolution: Hierarchy, Competence, Procedure, Specialty, Temporality, and Prevalence; The Completeness of the Legal Order, Defects and Integration; the Suppletority as a Technique of Heterogeneisation among the Legal Orders. |
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Bibliography: - AZPITARTE SÁNCHEZ, Miguel: “Las relaciones entre el Derecho de la unión y el Derecho del Estado a la luz de la Constitución Europea”, Revista de Derecho Constitucional Europeo, núm. 1, 2004. |
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Methodology and Evaluation: In our first meeting students will be introduced to the details of the programme, the class schedule (and bibliography which makes reference to readings necessary for the development of subsequent sessions), and procedural information relating to student evaluations. During the first four class meetings the participating professors will present the essential contents of the course, directing the discussion toward critical thinking and debate amongst the students. Also in these sessions, the professors will assign individual assignments in preparation for student presentations and discussions, which will take place in the second part of the course. The work will be assigned according to the needs of the different parts of the programme, and when possible according to student preference. Throughout the entire course students will participate in tutoring, where professors will maintain close communication with the students in order to facilitate and help direct assigned projects. Student evaluations will be based on the active participation of the students in the classroom, the degree of elaboration and development of all presented material, review and correction of work with attention to practical and scientific detail, and student attendance. |
9. THE APPLICATION OF EUROPEAN LAW IN DECENTRALIZED MEMBER STATES.
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Specific Course Contents: In the first module of the course we examine the application of the European Union Law in Spain, focusing not only on the theoretical formulation of the autonomous involvement in implementing European Union Law, but also on the existing problems related to its practical application. The Constitutional Court has established that it corresponds to apply the European Union Law derived from the competent administration according to the distribution of the power contained within the block of constitutionality. However, in practice this assumption is limited by different elements of our autonomous system. For example, the title “general management of economic activity”, which allows the state to determine the basic contents of this subject and the detailed character of this regulation make it so that the application of European Union Law is always applied by the state, leaving the autonomous communities in a secondary position. The outline for the presentation of this subject is as follows: 1. The regional dimension in the application of secondary European Law In the second part, Professor D'Atena from the University Tor Vergata in Rome will examine the situation in Italy and, especially, after the constitutional reform of Title V carried out by Act 3, 2001 of the constitutional reform. The issues from the Italian perspective are similar to those in Spain, although, the attention focuses on the guarantee of the respect of the European obligations by the Regions. The contents of this model are as follows: 1. The Regional participation in the application of European law after the reform of Title V of the Constitution |
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Bibliography: - E. ALBERTÍ ROVIRA, L. ORTEGA ALVAREZ, J.A. MONTILLA MARTOS, Las Comunidades Autónomas ante la Unión Europea, CEPC, Madrid, 2005. |
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Methodology and Evaluation: The learning process will be divided into three different phases. In the preliminary first phase, the professor(s) will meet with the students in order to orientate them on books and the necessary course materials. For the theoretical and practical character of the course, the materials that show the autonomous involvement in European affairs, for example the websites of institutions such as the MAP, the Committee of the Regions (CoR), or the EU itself, results very important. In the second phase the basic contents of the course are presented, debating the different aspects. Finally, the students will explain the results of their research, which will be discussed in common sessions. Student evaluations will take into account two criteria: 1. Continuous control of the course with strong emphasis placed on attendance and participation of the doctoral students in the various sessions of the course. 2. Research work related to any sections of the programme, systematically linked to the overall contents of this course. |
10. THE CONTENTS AND LIMITS OF THE CHARTER OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS.
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Specific Contents: In the sessions of the course the students will study the conditions to which they will have to conform the limitations: I. The need of legislator action |
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Bibliography: - Alonso García, R: Sistema jurídico de la Unión Europea, Civitas, Madrid, 2007. |
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Methodology and Evaluation: The course is divided in two parts. In the first part, the professor introduces the essential contents of the course, trying to focus on perspective problems and to orient the exposition toward the reflexion and the debate by the students. In these first sessions it will assign to students the works for its exposition and discussion between the assistants in the following sessions. Student evaluations will be based on attendance, active participation of the students of the course, as well as the degree of elaboration and development of any individual work done. |
11. EUROPEAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW AND GLOBALISATION.Course Characteristics: Course/Fundamental/Elective/2 ECTS Credits Course Description: The course on “European Constitutional Law and Globalisation” is designed to offer a framework of reflexion regarding the relations between the European integration process and the process of globalisation. Specially, it will analyse the impact of the process of globalisation in the model of integration and in the process of EU constitutionalisation. Equally, it will consider the general relation between Constitutional Law and Globalisation from double perspectives of the global projection of Constitutional Law and the incidence of the globalisation process in the National Constitutional Law.
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Specific Course Contents: 1. Globalisation and National Constitutional Law |
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Bibliography: 1.-Mark Tushnet, “The Inevitable Globalization of Constitutional Law”: http://www.student.virginia.edu/~vjil/PDF/49_985-1006.pdf También el debate generado en relación con ese trabajo: http://opiniojuris.org/2009/06/11/a-response-to-mark-tushnet-by-david-fontana/ http://opiniojuris.org/2009/06/11/a-response-to-mark-tushnet-by-robert-ahdieh/ http://opiniojuris.org/2009/06/11/the-inevitable-globalization-of-constitutional-law/ 2.-Anne Peters, “The Merits of Global Constitutionalism”: http://ius.unibas.ch/uploads/publics/5365/20100219153329_4b7ea1390fe2c.pdf 3.-Christine E.J. Schwöbel, “The appeal of the Project of Global Constitutionalism to Public International Lawyers”: http://stockholm.sgir.eu/uploads/Stockholm_Paper.pdf 4.-Carlos de Cabo Martín, “Constitucionalismo del Estado Social y Unión Europea en el contexto globalizador”: http://www.ugr.es/~redce/REDCE11/articulos/01CarlosDeCabo.htm 5.-Alessandro Pizzorusso, “La producción normativa en tiempos de globalización”: http://www.ugr.es/~redce/REDCE11/articulos/10AlessandroPizzorusso.htm 6.-“Un jurista universal nacido en Europa”. Entrevista a Peter Häberle por Francisco Balaguer Callejón: |
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Methodology and Evaluation: The first sessions of the course are dedicated to the exposition of the essential features of this topic, trying to focus on the problems that the subject presents and to orient the exposition to the reflexion and the debate between the students that participate in the course. In this first session students will be assigned work for their exposition which will then be discussed with assistants in the following sessions. The evaluation will be based on the active participation of students in the sessions of the course and on the level of elaboration and development of their individual expositions.
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